Grade 12 Biology Curriculum Summary (U.S.)

• Topics:

  • Membrane transport: endocytosis, exocytosis, ion channels

  • Signal transduction pathways (ligand-receptor, second messengers)

  • Cell communication: paracrine, autocrine, endocrine, synaptic

  • Cell specialization and differentiation

• Skills:

  • Tracing signaling cascades (e.g., insulin pathway)

  • Understanding the role of receptors and feedback loops

  • Using case studies on cancer and cellular malfunction

• Topics:

  • Review: DNA/RNA structure and replication

  • Transcription, RNA splicing, translation (deep dive)

  • Gene regulation (operons, enhancers/silencers, transcription factors)

  • Epigenetics (methylation, acetylation, histone modification)

• Skills:

  • Analyzing DNA sequences and codon charts

  • Interpreting gene expression data

  • Explaining how environment impacts gene expression

• Topics:

  • Inheritance patterns (dominant, recessive, sex-linked, polygenic)

  • Chromosomal disorders (karyotyping, trisomy, deletions)

  • Biotechnology: PCR, gel electrophoresis, DNA sequencing

  • CRISPR, cloning, transgenic organisms

• Skills:

  • Designing Punnett square scenarios with multiple alleles

  • Evaluating genetic testing and screening techniques

  • Debating ethical considerations in biotech applications

• Topics:

  • Modern synthesis of evolution (genetics + natural selection)

  • Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (conditions, equations)

  • Speciation and reproductive isolation

  • Comparative genomics and evolutionary relationships

• Skills:

  • Calculating allele frequencies

  • Constructing phylogenetic trees and interpreting cladograms

  • Analyzing real-world examples (e.g., antibiotic resistance)

• Topics:

  • Ecosystem dynamics, stability, and resilience

  • Biogeochemical cycles and human impacts

  • Population ecology (logistic vs exponential growth)

  • Climate change, habitat fragmentation, and biodiversity loss

• Skills:

  • Modeling population trends

  • Evaluating case studies on conservation

  • Writing policy-style arguments on environmental solutions

Many schools include this as either a unit or a full-year course in Grade 12.

• Systems Covered:

  • Nervous system: brain anatomy, nerve impulses, synapses

  • Endocrine system: hormone pathways, feedback mechanisms

  • Cardiovascular system: heart, blood vessels, circulation

  • Respiratory system: gas exchange, lung function

  • Digestive system: enzymes, absorption, microbiome

  • Urinary system: nephron function, osmoregulation

  • Immune system: innate/adaptive, vaccines, autoimmunity

• Skills:

  • Identifying system structures through diagrams/dissections

  • Explaining integrated system responses (e.g., stress, infection)

  • Evaluating disorders and treatment options

Focus Areas:

• Advanced lab techniques: pipetting, spectrophotometry, titration

• Scientific writing and publishing standards

• Independent or group research project

• Use of statistical tools for data analysis (mean, standard deviation, chi-square)